Informative Speech
Genetically Modified Organisms
By Michael Whites
Topic: Genetically Modified Organisms
General Purpose: To inform
Specific purpose: To inform my audiences about GMOs
Central Idea: GMOs have become a debate for several decades, therefore; I would like to inform my audiences about their benefits, risks, and medical uses
Introduction
I. How many of you have thought about where your food comes from?
A. GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms) are the result of a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially forced into the genes of an unrelated plant or animal. The foreign genes may come from bacteria, viruses, insects, animals or even humans. Because this involves the transfer of genes, GMOs are also known as “transgenic” organisms.
B. According to Margie Kelly, communications Manager at Healthy Child, Healthy World, commercialized GM crops in the U.S. include soy (94%), cotton (90%), canola (90%), sugar beets (95%), corn (88%), Hawaiian papaya (more than 50%) (Kelly, 2012)
II. Today, I would like to inform you about their benefits, health risks, and public concerns.
Body
I. We live in the populated world that demands high amounts of food. GMOs technology has a great benefit in that regard.
A. According Janelle Vaesa, Professor at the University of Louisville, one of the pros of genetically modified crops is a better taste, increased nutrients, resistance to disease and pests, and faster output of crops. (Vaesa, 2013)
B. Farmers can grow more food on less land with genetically modified crops. (Vaesa, 2013)
C. Genetically modified insect-resistant crops produce their own, highly-specific pesticide (called Bt proteins) against a specific group of pests. (Renee, 2015)
Transition: Even though they have tremendous advantages, there are some health risks related to the use of GMOs.
II. There is a continuous debate that GMOs are associated with some health risks.
A. Food Allergy affects approximately 5% of children and 2% of adults in the U.S. and is a significant public health threat (University of Minnesota, 2003).
B. Allergic reactions in humans occur when a normally harmless protein enters the body and stimulates an immune response (University of Minnesota, 2003).
C. GMOs rely on antibiotics, so antibiotics can potentially cause the development of genes to become antibiotic-resistant. (Stonebrook, 2013)
Transition: After talking about GMOs benefits and risks, I would like to tell you about the medical uses.
III. GMO technology is saving lives every day.
A. Scientists developed a new form of insulin made by genetically modified bacteria. (Fraley, 2015)
B. “GMO vaccines to fight cholera, malaria, and many other diseases for which non-GMO methods have proved ineffective are under development.” (Fraley, 2015)
Conclusion
GMOs have many benefits and potential health risks. In addition, they are heavily used in medication productions that can save many of lives. Among the GMO debate, would you still consume GMOs and save money, or rather to eat organics regardless of their expensive prices?
Work Cited
Fraley, Robert. “GMOs essential to life-Saving medicines and other uses, even if you don’t want them in food.” Genetic Literacy Project, 28 Sept. 2015, geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/09/28/gmos-essential-life-saving-medicines-uses-even-dont-want-food/. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
“Harmful Effects of the Agent.” GMO: Harmful Effects, University of Minnesota, enhs.umn.edu/current/5103/gm/harmful.html. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
Kelly, Margie. “Top 7 Genetically Modified Crops.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 30 Oct. 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/margie-kelly/genetically-modified-food_b_2039455.html. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
Renee, Janet. “Benefits You Get From a GMO.” LIVESTRONG.COM, Leaf Group, 20 May 2015, www.livestrong.com/article/195435-benefits-you-get-from-a-gmo/. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
Stonebrook, Shelley. “4 Potential Health Risks of Eating GMO Foods.” 4 Potential Health Risks Of Eating GMO Foods, Care2 Healthy Living, www.care2.com/greenliving/health-risks-of-eating-gmo-foods.html. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
Vaesa, Janelle. “GMOs: Benefits and Negative Effects of Genetically Modified Food.” Decoded Science, 19 July 2013, www.decodedscience.org/gmo-food-pro-and-con/23179. Accessed 23 Sept. 2017.
Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a big concern in hospitals throughout the country and the world, as have other antibiotic resistant bacterial strains
Assignment Details
Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a big concern in hospitals throughout the country and the world, as have other antibiotic resistant bacterial strains.
Part 1
· The use, overuse, and abuse of antibiotics is accredited with creating these antibiotic resistant strains. Explain how this relates to natural selection.
· Describe 1–2 of the things that people do (you can include individuals, doctors, health care professionals, hospitals, farmers, etc.) that contribute to this problem? Why?
Part 2
· How can you prevent or slow down the spread and further the selection of new antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria?
· Are there things that you can personally do to reduce your risk or even to reduce the spread of these dangerous microbes?
· What is your reaction to the following sign that is commonly found in restrooms? Is it significant to the discussion of antibiotic resistance?
What Were The Main Goals Of Franklin D Roosevelt’s New Deal? How Did The New Deal Attempt To Achieve Those Goals? Describe At Least One Specific Example For Each Of The 3 Rs (Relief, Recovery, Reform). What Were The Primary Criticisms Of The New Deal Duri..
Create a diversity policy for your selected company to mitigate discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, etc. and to promote a diverse workplace
Write a five to six (5-6) page paper in which you:
1. Create a diversity policy for your selected company to mitigate discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, etc. and to promote a diverse workplace. Note: Use the following samples as guidance.
Hint: Review the sample diversity policy
Hint: Review the Sample Human Resources Policies, Checklists, Forms, and Procedures, or use a sample policy from a company you are familiar with as guidance.
2. Create a sexual harassment policy for your selected company to address a sexual harassment complaint. Cover both quid pro quo and hostile work environment types of harassment in your policy.
Hint: Review “Sample Policy 1: Sexual Harassment”
Hint: Review the Sample Human Resources Policies, Checklists, Forms, and Procedures, located at , or use a sample policy from a company you are familiar with as guidance.
Hint: Review the article titled “How to address an employee sexual harassment complaint”
3. Use the Diversity or Sexual Harassment Training Plan template to develop a Drag training plan to communicate one (1) of the policies you created (the diversity policy or the sexual harassment policy) to the company’s managers, staff and employees.
Note: The completed Training Plan should be incorporated into the paper and is counted towards the total page length requirement for this assignment.
Hint: Review the article titled “How Do I Plan a Human Resource Training Program in an Organization Setting”
4. Use at least four (4) quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia does not qualify as an academic resource.
5. Format your assignment according to these formatting requirements:
- Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
- Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required page length.
- Include a reference page. Citations and references must follow APA format. The reference page is not included in the required page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
- Develop human resource policies and practices that foster an appreciation for multiple cultures, ethnicities, and other diverse populations.
- Describe key laws governing employment and the required compliance for organizations.
- Use communication skills to effectively convey human resource policies and practices throughout the organization.
- Demonstrate an ability to motivate individuals and teams toward organizational goals through the application of human resource initiatives and policies.
- Review the human resource management function of training and development and the function’s importance to business strategy.
- Use technology and information resources to research issues in human resource management.
- Write clearly and concisely about human resource management using proper writing mechanics.
Small Business Review-HRM
Select an existing small company in an industry you are familiar with to be the basis of the small business in this case. Review the company’s structure, culture, business strategy, mission, and vision.
Write a five to six (5-6) page paper in which you:
- Provide a brief summary, in your own words, of your selected company’s overall business strategy. Next, determine the direction you visualize the company growing within the next five (5) to ten (10) years. Hint: Review the common business strategies of Cost Leadership, Differentiation and Focus or Niche on p. 50 of your text.
- Design a human resource management strategy to support your selected company’s business strategy. Explain the competitive advantage of your HRM strategy. Hint: Review the following common human resource management strategies of Loyal Soldier, Bargain Laborer, Committed Expert and Free Agent from previous courses.
- Develop an HR Scorecard table for your selected company. Include the four (4) dimensions (i.e., financial, customer service, internal process, and learning / growth / sustainability). Next, assess the value of your proposal to the small business in each of these dimensions. Hint: Review the video titled “Building the Human Resources Performance Measurement Scorecard” (4 min 1 s) located at for additional guidance in creating an HR Scorecard.
- Use at least three (3) quality academic resources in this assignment from within the past five (5) years. Note: Wikipedia does not qualify as an academic resource.
- Format your assignment according to these formatting requirements:
- Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
- Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page is not included in the required page length.
- Include a reference page. Citations and references must follow APA format. The reference page is not included in the required page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
- Assess the strategic role of human resource management and the components that provide a competitive advantage to the organization.
- Determine the human resource management function of human resource planning and its importance to business strategy.
- Develop work designs that support the human resources strategy.
- Use technology and information resources to research issues in human resource management.
- Write clearly and concisely about human resource management using proper writing mechanics.
HLS 470 DB4-Criminal Law
You are the critical infrastructure protection (CIP) specialist in the plans directorate of a public safety organization in one of the 100 largest metropolitan statistical areas in the United States.
Based on the total number of Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources (CIKR) in your jurisdiction (national, state, county, and local), you have been tasked by the director of public safety to develop some courses of action to inform a recommendation regarding the use of available resources for protection of CIKR.
The director understands the complexities associated with the many contributing factors and realizes that there will always exist a shortfall or deficiency between essential tasks and available resources. The director also understands there will never be one solution that captures everything that needs to be considered and accomplished. The director will make the final decision based on your assessment.
Primary Task Response: Your first task is to post your own Key Assignment Outline to the discussion area so that other students are able to review your plan. Attach your document to the main discussion post, and include any notes you feel are appropriate. The purpose of this assignment is to help improve the quality of the Key Assignment Draft you will complete next week.
Respond to Another Student: Review at least 1 other student’s Key Assignment Outline and provide meaningful feedback. Refrain from general feedback, such as simply stating “good job.” Your feedback to other students is most helpful if you not only point out weak areas but also offer suggestions for improvement. The best feedback takes a three-stage approach to identify what was done well, weaknesses, and areas for improvement.
Psychology Questions
ONE PAGE LONG
Listen to the TED Talk, The Neuroscience of Restorative Justice. Who is the speaker? What are his credentials? What is the point of his discussion? How does this relate to the lecture notes and chapter on deviance? What is his conclusion? What do you think?
ONE PAGE LONG
Watch the Video, The Changing American Family, CBS. Describe the families you see here. Do you see your family? Describe your family. How is the American Family changing?
ONE PAGE LONG
Listen to the TED Talk, The Charter for Compassion. Who is the speaker? What are her credentials? What is the point of her discussion? What examples does she use to make her points? What is her request? What do you think about her request?
ONE PAGE LONG
Read the article, The Recentness of What We Know. What is the actual topic of the article (be careful!) What are the main points about this topic? How does this relate to social science and sociology?
ONE PAGE LONG
In the Articles folder, read The Importance of the Clan in Iraq. Using the Culture notes and chapter discuss this article. Who is speaking? What are his main points? How is this relevant to Culture and Sociology?
ONE PAGE LONG
Read the article, Class Decides Everything. What is the author’s point? What classes is he talking about? What is class? HOW does “class decide(s) everything?”
ONE PAGE LONG
Read the article, Brothers Share Wife to Secure Family Land. Using the notes from Marriage and Family, what kind of marriage is this? Why does this society/culture have this form of marriage? How does it secure the family land? Be sure to answer sociologically, not just from personal opinion.
ONE PAGE LONG
Read the article, Too Close For Comfort. Who is the author? What makes her qualified to write about this? What are her main points? What do you think?
Technology to Keep International Students Connected
Read the short article “Technology to Keep International Students Connected” by Nisa Taib. Then consider ways you stay connected to “your loved ones back home.” Do you use any of the technologies that Taib lists? How do you use these technolgies? How often do you use them? And how effective and useful are they? Describe your relationship to these technolgies and why or why not they matter to you. (Write a 500+ word response)
https://www.usnews.com/education/blogs/international-student-counsel/2013/06/18/technology-to-keep-international-students-connected
Video Review and Summary
Video URL:
Citation:
Ethics in Public Service. (2014, February 13). Retrieved June 29, 2015, from http://www.cacitymanagers.org/ethics-inpublic-service/.
Video Review and Summary
As critical leaders in local government, city managers play an important role in driving and supporting ethical behavior and maintaining the public trust. The video below showcases several city managers from around the state of California discussing their ethical obligations to the people they serve.
Develop a 500- to 600-word essay comparing similar trends and unique perspectives on ethical expectations vocalized by the various city managers of California. In addition, identify the video’s major theories, ideas, and concepts associated with sound ethical practices required by public leaders. Your response should be at least 500 words in length in APA style. All sources used must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 4:
Administration Responsibility: The Key to Administrative Ethics
Unit Lesson
Philosophical Theories: Related to Ethical Decision-Making
Many theorists have concluded that several decision-making models exist that focus on consistent norms and have derived from society and individual impressions. The textbook cites several sources that are prominent in this field, and lists some of the well-known founders of these theories. Participants that develop topics of
public policy, such as social equity, education, conflict resolution, or human rights, may base their decisionmaking on the beliefs related to certain philosophies.
Utilitarianism: Approach Based on Consequences
Based on consequences, an action may be right or wrong. Jeremy Bentham and John Steward Mills derived this theory that was completely based on reason. The authors did not want their theory based on religion or particular societal level of norms. More so, Utilitarianism wanted everyone to have access to a thinking mind and is based off an idea of utility or usefulness. An abbreviated summary of Bentham and Mills theory can be summarized as “the greatest good, for the greatest number or population.” We can assume that “good” means happiness or pleasure for most people. Another concept closely related to this outcome is efficacy, which implies the “least desired input for greatest desired output.” Business and government usually take this strategy for different reasons – mainly associated with resources. If one thinks about successful business and government practices, the decision-making effort outcomes generally result in products and services that work best, cost least, and last the longest. The consumer mindset also uses this simple and natural buying process for decision-making. The successful business leader uses this variable for short and long-term investment decisions, and the public manager focuses on successful public services, which utilizes public funding in a prudent and wise fashion. Another public example is the government buying process where services and products are purchased though a competitive vetting process where needs, values, and timely delivery are critical components of the purchasing decision model. Efficacy also applies to students who compare colleges that provide the best benefits for the best dollar value, student teacher ratio, or finding where friends attend. Utilitarianism is the ideal ethical theory for democracy because the majority decides what is best. Subjecting topics to a vote means that the strongest side will win.
Deontology: Decisions Based on Principles
Principled public administrators use the deontology theory. The principles or rules referenced could derive from the organization itself. These types of rules (or laws) could also be interpreted as obligatory, thus public managers have to know how to apply these sets of principles to actual scenarios. Immanuel Kant, an 18th century German Philosopher, provided a foundation for deontology that states, “one should act only as if one were legislating a universal law for everyone to follow in a preferred world.” Two overriding principles that Kant focuses on are that mankind should not lie, and as a means to an end – individuals should not be influenced unequally. Another well-known philosopher, John Rawls (1985) wrote, “Justice is Fairness.” In his writings, he stated that there are two overriding principles that should provide justification for rational calculations. Rawls summarized the following:
· First Principle: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberty compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.
· Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged. (p. 223)
Ontology: The Study of Being
The term, being, pertains to the public administrator’s decision-making properties or references of physical objects, classes of human beings, properties or relations to objects, space and or time, or events. The study of ontology pertains to groups and their relations with similar entities. What concepts should public managers use when making ethical decisions based on ontology? The answer references and includes the state of affairs or relationships with the properties previously stated.
Epistemology: The Study of Knowledge
The method or process that is used for research is defined from two distinct parameters. The first parameter is positivism, meaning the purpose of research is performed for scientific explanation. The technique utilizes deductive logic (from previously known facts) and empirical observations; thus, predicting human patterns. The second parameter is interpretivism, where qualitative research is primarily used. The primary research tools are observed by a participant’s experiences and interactions with social systems and usually not generalized to a population. Together, both research and decision-making processes that encompass epistemology are not curtailed by drawn boundaries. It is important to understand that public administrators may or may not use boundaries to interpret and make decisions based on constructed limitations. In the real
world, these limitations can be called reason or common experience. Examples may include political or religious beliefs. Should the public administrator view these attitudes as restraints?
Approaches to decision-making focus on several variables that are committed to successful utility. These include:
· obligations/duty (public servant fiduciary trust),
· virtue (honesty and integrity),
· principles (rights of individuals), and
· benefits to society (best for community).
The conclusions and examinations of decision-making theories are not reviewed to confuse or muddy the waters of administrating, but should broaden the perspectives and self-awareness of ethical theories. One theory over another is certainly never the ultimate answer when making public decisions. The hope is that the administrator can gleam different ways of providing possible resolutions after reviewing the pros and cons.
Thus, benefiting all stakeholders by promoting the very best alternatives.
SAMPLWE
James H. Svara North Carolina State Universify
The Myth of the Dichotomy: Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration
At the heart of the practice of public administration is the relationship between administrators, on one hand, and po- litical leaders and the public on the other hand. The nature of that relationship and the proper role of administrators in the political process have been the subject of considerable debate. Anxiety about administrative legitimacy has been particularly intense in the United States, where the rise of the administrative state was out of synch with a democratic society (Stillman 1997), but similar issues have arisen in other countries as well (Rutgers 1997). As the field emerged, it was important to differentiate a practice based on profes- sional knowledge and values from political particularism, but the extent and scope of the differentiation were unclear. It was also necessary to reconcile the tensions among com- plying with the directions of elected officials, maintaining professional integrity, and serving the public. Observers dif- fer as to whether American thinking about the relationship of public administration to society has experienced major shifts over time or has gradually evolved.
Along the lines developed by Lynn, the case can be made that there has generally been continuity in the develop- ment of public administration in the United States rather than an abandonment of the traditions of the field. Whereas Lynn organizes his reexamination around the bureaucratic paradigm, my emphasis is the core relationship between politicians and administrators.’ Not only did traditional thought, as Lynn observes, seek to maintain “balance be- tween administrative capacity and popular control on be- half of public purposes defined by electoral and judicial institutions,” it also sought to justify the contributions of public administrators to shaping the definition of public purposes. Put simply, early contributors to the develop- ment of public administration acknowledged a policy role for administrators that has often been ignored. Even the politics-administration dichotomy that is a part of the tra- ditional paradigm usually incorporates the ideas of account- ability and responsibility—although the paradigm can be expressed in ways that seem to preclude these qualities by
176 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, VoL 61, No. 2
portraying administration as mechanically instrumental— but the emphasis on a strict dichotomy of politics and ad- ministration will not accommodate the policy role of ad- ministrators that has come to be widely recognized.
In the past—and, I would argue, in the present as well— there was simultaneous emphasis on separation and insu- lation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of pub- lic policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow favored such contributions, as did Leonard White, who acknowl- edged but dismissed concems about the growth of admin- istration “controlling in the first instance the application of law to the individual case, cooperating also in the for- mulation of policy” (1926, 33). Although legislative con- trol of administration is critical, he argued, “it is neverthe- less important to remember that the administration cooperates indispensably with the legislature, and that with- out its assistance, the task of legislation would become much less informed and much less effective.” These found- ing fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy at- tributed to them—a conclusion demonstrated repeatedly (Golembiewski 1977; Rabin and Bowman 1984, 4; Rohr 1986, 31; Van Riper 1984, 209-10).^ Still, the myth that public administration began as a narrow, confined, and insulated activity is regularly repeated partly because, as Lynn implies, it is self-satisfying to view ourselves as en- lightened and to view earlier, particularly prewar scholars and practitioners, as benighted.
There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of
James H. Svara is a prokssor and head of the Department of Political Sci- ence and Public Administration at North Carolina State University. His cur- rent research is a comparative study of f/)e relationship of elected officials and the highest appointed administrative official in city qovernments in 12 European countries, Australia, and the United States. Leadership at the Apex: Politicians and Administrators in Western Local Governments, coauthored with Poul Erik Mouritzen of Denmark, will be published later this year by the University of Pittsburgh Press. Email: svara@social.chass.ncsu.edu.
The Myth of the Dichotomy: Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration
At the heart of the practice of public administration is the relationship between administrators, on one hand, and po- litical leaders and the public on the other hand. The nature of that relationship and the proper role of administrators in the political process have been the subject of considerable debate. Anxiety about administrative legitimacy has been particularly intense in the United States, where the rise of the administrative state was out of synch with a democratic society (Stillman 1997), but similar issues have arisen in other countries as well (Rutgers 1997). As the field emerged, it was important to differentiate a practice based on profes- sional knowledge and values from political particularism, but the extent and scope of the differentiation were unclear. It was also necessary to reconcile the tensions among com- plying with the directions of elected officials, maintaining professional integrity, and serving the public. Observers dif- fer as to whether American thinking about the relationship of public administration to society has experienced major shifts over time or has gradually evolved.
Along the lines developed by Lynn, the case can be made that there has generally been continuity in the develop- ment of public administration in the United States rather than an abandonment of the traditions of the field. Whereas Lynn organizes his reexamination around the bureaucratic paradigm, my emphasis is the core relationship between politicians and administrators.’ Not only did traditional thought, as Lynn observes, seek to maintain “balance be- tween administrative capacity and popular control on be- half of public purposes defined by electoral and judicial institutions,” it also sought to justify the contributions of public administrators to shaping the definition of public purposes. Put simply, early contributors to the develop- ment of public administration acknowledged a policy role for administrators that has often been ignored. Even the politics-administration dichotomy that is a part of the tra- ditional paradigm usually incorporates the ideas of account- ability and responsibility—although the paradigm can be expressed in ways that seem to preclude these qualities by
176 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, VoL 61, No. 2
portraying administration as mechanically instrumental— but the emphasis on a strict dichotomy of politics and ad- ministration will not accommodate the policy role of ad- ministrators that has come to be widely recognized.
In the past—and, I would argue, in the present as well— there was simultaneous emphasis on separation and insu- lation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of pub- lic policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow favored such contributions, as did Leonard White, who acknowl- edged but dismissed concems about the growth of admin- istration “controlling in the first instance the application of law to the individual case, cooperating also in the for- mulation of policy” (1926, 33). Although legislative con- trol of administration is critical, he argued, “it is neverthe- less important to remember that the administration cooperates indispensably with the legislature, and that with- out its assistance, the task of legislation would become much less informed and much less effective.” These found- ing fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy at- tributed to them—a conclusion demonstrated repeatedly (Golembiewski 1977; Rabin and Bowman 1984, 4; Rohr 1986, 31; Van Riper 1984, 209-10).^ Still, the myth that public administration began as a narrow, confined, and insulated activity is regularly repeated partly because, as Lynn implies, it is self-satisfying to view ourselves as en- lightened and to view earlier, particularly prewar scholars and practitioners, as benighted.
There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of
James H. Svara is a prokssor and head of the Department of Political Sci- ence and Public Administration at North Carolina State University. His cur- rent research is a comparative study of f/)e relationship of elected officials and the highest appointed administrative official in city qovernments in 12 European countries, Australia, and the United States. Leadership at the Apex: Politicians and Administrators in Western Local Governments, coauthored with Poul Erik Mouritzen of Denmark, will be published later this year by the University of Pittsburgh Press. Email: svara@social.chass.ncsu.edu.
roles in terms of total separation because it is easier to explain than a model based on sharing roles, particularly since the separation model does not limit the actual policy contributions of administrators in practice. At the same time, the dichotomy idea shields administrators from scru- tiny and serves the interests of elected officials who can pass responsibility for unpopular decisions to adminis- trators (Peters 1995, 177-8). Miller (2000, 314-5) sees dichotomy as a “useful myth” because it obscures the in- fluence of administrators to constrain efforts by politi- cians in power to slant the implementation of policies and channel benefits toward themselves. “Partial” ver- sions of the dichotomy persist. KettI (2000, 8-9), who recognizes the positive contributions of Wilson’s and Goodnow’s work, views the effort to separate politics from administration as creating a dichotomy and labels the emphasis on hierarchy, authority, structure, and top- down accountability the “Wilsonian” tradition in public administration (16-17).^ Montjoy and Watson (1995,231) propose a “reinterpreted dichotomy” that permits a policy- making role for the manager but still helps managers re- sist the forces of particularism. This approach is consis- tent with the way that dichotomy was defined before the late 1950s.”Acknowledging that administrators discretely shape policy behind the scenes reconciled policy influ- ence and hierarchy.
Furthermore, it should be recognized that the idea of the strict dichotomy does have a historical basis in the United States, even though it was not the normative model proposed during the founding period of American public administration. A final reason for the persistence of the dichotomy is the absence of an altemative model. In the next section, I will consider the development of the di- chotomy idea in the past. In the final section, I will present the idea of complementarity—a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alter- native to the dichotomy.
The Real and Contrived Dichotomy The separation theme was dominant during the late
1920s and 1930s in the United States, although the recog- nition of the need for interaction was never lost among scholars in public administration. I will leave it to others to sort out the features of organization theory during this period. I admit to accepting the image of the “high noon of orthodoxy,” without the critical examination that Lynn encourages. Schachter (1989) deserves credit for debunk- ing the standard characterizations of Taylor and the mu- nicipal research bureaus as dominated by concems about efficiency and oblivious to democracy and responsiveness. It is time to question more critically conclusions like Martin’s (1952, 667): His assertion that in the 1930s “ad-
ministration was separated severely from the legislative body” rests on the assumption that administration was dominated by a “mechanistic concept” grounded in scien- tific management.
Still, there is evidence from this period of support for putting distance between policy making and administra- tion. Dimock (1936, 3) noted that the distinction between policy formulation and execution has been important, but “the danger today is in going too far in the formal separa- tion between politics and administration.” In local gov- ernment, there was a division that was worthy of the la- bel “dichotomy,” although the term was rarely used at the time. Strict confinement of the city manager to ad- ministration was the established view in the International City Management Association (ICMA) and embodied in the 1938 code of ethics (Stillman 1974,43-53). Clarence Ridley and Orin Nolting—director and assistant director of ICMA—in The City Management Profession (1934, 30) stated that the manager should not “let himself be driven or led into taking the leadership or responsibility in matters of policy.” In general, the manager should stay “out of the limelight as much as possible.” Thus, there is a historical basis for the conceptual and normative model of strict separation, but it was an “aberration” (Svara 1998) that departed from earlier and later thinking—con- veyed most importantly in the commentary accompany- ing the second Model City Charter that endorsed the coun- cil-manager form, and in the 1924 and 1952 ICMA ethics codes, which acknowledge (at least implicitly) a policy role for the city manager.
Even during the 1930s, however, there were diverse views, as Lynn observes. There was recognition of the cen- trality of discretion to administration (Blachly and Oakman 1934, 36-8; Gulick 1933), the policy role played by ad- ministrators (Gaus, White, and Dimock 1936; Haines and Dimock 1935; Hyneman 1939; Pfiffner 1935), and the link- ages between administrators and interest groups (Gaus, White, and Dimock 1936; Herring 1936). There was sup- port for giving the lead role in planning to the executive and administrators, with legislators acting as reviewers of plans (Gulick 1933). There was considerable empirical evidence of the intermixture of politics and administration (for example. Stone, Price, and Stone 1940,247). Remark- ably—in view of our current preconceptions—Price (1941, 578) captured the essence of the administrative role in gov- emment at a point just past high noon: Public administra- tors make “the greatest contribution to policy and admin- istration without even momentary immunity from political responsibility.” The shortcomings of public-administration thinking in this period should not be ignored. Through the 1930s, the formal instrumental relationship of administra- tors to elected officials was emphasized, only a narrow range of the ways that administrators affect policy were
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 177
Furthermore, it should be recognized that the idea of the strict dichotomy does have a historical basis in the United States, even though it was not the normative model proposed during the founding period of American public administration. A final reason for the persistence of the dichotomy is the absence of an altemative model. In the next section, I will consider the development of the di- chotomy idea in the past. In the final section, I will present the idea of complementarity—a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alter- native to the dichotomy.
The Real and Contrived Dichotomy The separation theme was dominant during the late
1920s and 1930s in the United States, although the recog- nition of the need for interaction was never lost among scholars in public administration. I will leave it to others to sort out the features of organization theory during this period. I admit to accepting the image of the “high noon of orthodoxy,” without the critical examination that Lynn encourages. Schachter (1989) deserves credit for debunk- ing the standard characterizations of Taylor and the mu- nicipal research bureaus as dominated by concems about efficiency and oblivious to democracy and responsiveness. It is time to question more critically conclusions like Martin’s (1952, 667): His assertion that in the 1930s “ad-
ministration was separated severely from the legislative body” rests on the assumption that administration was dominated by a “mechanistic concept” grounded in scien- tific management.
Still, there is evidence from this period of support for putting distance between policy making and administra- tion. Dimock (1936, 3) noted that the distinction between policy formulation and execution has been important, but “the danger today is in going too far in the formal separa- tion between politics and administration.” In local gov- ernment, there was a division that was worthy of the la- bel “dichotomy,” although the term was rarely used at the time. Strict confinement of the city manager to ad- ministration was the established view in the International City Management Association (ICMA) and embodied in the 1938 code of ethics (Stillman 1974,43-53). Clarence Ridley and Orin Nolting—director and assistant director of ICMA—in The City Management Profession (1934, 30) stated that the manager should not “let himself be driven or led into taking the leadership or responsibility in matters of policy.” In general, the manager should stay “out of the limelight as much as possible.” Thus, there is a historical basis for the conceptual and normative model of strict separation, but it was an “aberration” (Svara 1998) that departed from earlier and later thinking—con- veyed most importantly in the commentary accompany- ing the second Model City Charter that endorsed the coun- cil-manager form, and in the 1924 and 1952 ICMA ethics codes, which acknowledge (at least implicitly) a policy role for the city manager.
Even during the 1930s, however, there were diverse views, as Lynn observes. There was recognition of the cen- trality of discretion to administration (Blachly and Oakman 1934, 36-8; Gulick 1933), the policy role played by ad- ministrators (Gaus, White, and Dimock 1936; Haines and Dimock 1935; Hyneman 1939; Pfiffner 1935), and the link- ages between administrators and interest groups (Gaus, White, and Dimock 1936; Herring 1936). There was sup- port for giving the lead role in planning to the executive and administrators, with legislators acting as reviewers of plans (Gulick 1933). There was considerable empirical evidence of the intermixture of politics and administration (for example. Stone, Price, and Stone 1940,247). Remark- ably—in view of our current preconceptions—Price (1941, 578) captured the essence of the administrative role in gov- emment at a point just past high noon: Public administra- tors make “the greatest contribution to policy and admin- istration without even momentary immunity from political responsibility.” The shortcomings of public-administration thinking in this period should not be ignored. Through the 1930s, the formal instrumental relationship of administra- tors to elected officials was emphasized, only a narrow range of the ways that administrators affect policy were
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 177
recognized,’ and the need for strict insulation from parti- san politics continued to be stressed. These limitations and others appropriately sparked dissent and the calls for new approaches in the late 1940s, but they did not warrant the later rejection of all pre-war contributions to the develop- ment of public administration. From 1940 onward, the debate about public administrators’ contributions to demo- cratic govemance got even more lively (Appleby 1949; Fesler 1957; Friedrich 1940; Gaus 1950; Levitan 1943; Long 1954; Morstein Marx 1946; Waldo 1948), but the early contributors were not ignored or renounced.^
What Lynn suggests that Simon (1946) and Dahl (1947) did to stigmatize earlier organization theorists, Wallace Sayre (1958) did to undermine respect for the political-adminis- trative formulations of the founders of public administra- tion in the United States. Ironically, given his interest in expanding acceptance of values in the study of administra- tion (Sayre 1951), his essay had the effect of derailing the evolving discussion of the interaction of politics and admin- istration by asserting instead that this was a new, previously unrecognized concem. To an extent not found previously,^ Sayre reinterpreted the early literature on political-admin- istrative relations. For the first time in the public adminis- tration literature, the dichotomy model, with its emphasis on complete separation of spheres, was enunciated;^ from this point forward, use of the term (with this narrow defini- tion) increased greatly (Svara 1999a).̂ Sayre asserted that public administration, as defined by the dichotomy, was a “self-contained world ofits own, with its own separate val- ues, rules, and methods” (1958, 102) and “was concemed exclusively with the execution of assignments handed down from the realm of politics” (103). He did not cite any sources prior to 1946 objecting to the premise that administration has no involvement in policy, even though the literature is replete with references to pohcy contributions. Sayre asserted that a strict dichotomy as he characterized it was the found- ing theory of public administration. Not only did he present the “high noon” image, whose damaging effects Lynn notes, he also claimed there had been darkness at the dawning of public administration.
Remarkably, this new version of history was accepted without challenge, even among public administration schol- ars, and was eagerly supported by political scientists. The “revisionist interpretation,” as Lynn puts it, was substituted for the original ideas in public administration. The idea quickly took hold that Wilson, Goodnow, and White had advocated a dichotomy model based on strict separation of spheres. Since this version of the model is patently un- tenable,'” it followed that public administration lacked a defensible conceptual foundation. Mosher (1968, 6) as- serted that, with the demise of the dichotomy, “the finding of a viable substitute may well be the number one problem of public administration today.” Since the late 1960s, ef-
forts have been made to establish the bases of legitimacy for public administration; however, these efforts have been weakened because they start with the faulty premise that public administration could not approximate what its founders in the United States had advocated. A new public administration was being built without a foundation.
There has been a disconcerting tendency in public ad- ministration to caricature ideas that are criticized rather than identifying shortcomings and building on strengths. Along with the strict dichotomy as a strawman model—and the bureaucratic paradigm—have come the neutering of neu- tral competence and the assertion that “technical-rational- ity” is the dominant and all-encompassing mindset of tradi- tional public administration (Adams and Balfour 1998). Since the field began in the United States, there has been support for applying professional knowledge—broadly de- fined to include substantive, public-service, and technical values—in an impartial, nonpartisan way to address public problems. This robust form of neutral competence is con- sistent with definitions by Dunn (1997), Heclo (1975), Rourke (1992), and Wolf (1999). This defining characteris- tic of public administration—its professional indepen- dence—was transformed by its linkage to the strict-di- chotomy model into either passivity or valueless, even amoral, disinterest in the ends of govemment, that is, neu- trality had been divorced from statesmanship (Green 1998).”
To be sure, there are public administrators who are more concemed with means than ends and who assert that ad- ministrators should be given free rein by politicians to use a narrowly defined expertise. There have been city man- agers who used strict separation as a screen to conceal their own power (Newiand 1989).’^There have been cases on a large and small scale of administrators who were incapable of finding the moral fiber to resist harmful policies. Still, commitment to public serving values, substantive ends as well as technical means, and procedural faimess have al- ways been part of the theory and practice of public admin- istration, along with an interest in technique and rational- ity. It is important to understand the rich tradition of the field if we are to build a stronger future for it. This under- standing will force us to abandon simplistic foils—di- chotomy, bureaucratic paradigm, neutral competence too narrowly defined, and technical rationality too broadly applied—to make altemative formulations look stronger. When the continuity in the field of public administration is recognized, we must acknowledge that our accomplish- ments in the past 40 years have been rather modest.’^
Complementarity of Politics and Administration
To avoid slipping back into the view that public ad- ministration began in dichotomy but moved into broader
178 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
What Lynn suggests that Simon (1946) and Dahl (1947) did to stigmatize earlier organization theorists, Wallace Sayre (1958) did to undermine respect for the political-adminis- trative formulations of the founders of public administra- tion in the United States. Ironically, given his interest in expanding acceptance of values in the study of administra- tion (Sayre 1951), his essay had the effect of derailing the evolving discussion of the interaction of politics and admin- istration by asserting instead that this was a new, previously unrecognized concem. To an extent not found previously,^ Sayre reinterpreted the early literature on political-admin- istrative relations. For the first time in the public adminis- tration literature, the dichotomy model, with its emphasis on complete separation of spheres, was enunciated;^ from this point forward, use of the term (with this narrow defini- tion) increased greatly (Svara 1999a).̂ Sayre asserted that public administration, as defined by the dichotomy, was a “self-contained world ofits own, with its own separate val- ues, rules, and methods” (1958, 102) and “was concemed exclusively with the execution of assignments handed down from the realm of politics” (103). He did not cite any sources prior to 1946 objecting to the premise that administration has no involvement in policy, even though the literature is replete with references to pohcy contributions. Sayre asserted that a strict dichotomy as he characterized it was the found- ing theory of public administration. Not only did he present the “high noon” image, whose damaging effects Lynn notes, he also claimed there had been darkness at the dawning of public administration.
Remarkably, this new version of history was accepted without challenge, even among public administration schol- ars, and was eagerly supported by political scientists. The “revisionist interpretation,” as Lynn puts it, was substituted for the original ideas in public administration. The idea quickly took hold that Wilson, Goodnow, and White had advocated a dichotomy model based on strict separation of spheres. Since this version of the model is patently un- tenable,'” it followed that public administration lacked a defensible conceptual foundation. Mosher (1968, 6) as- serted that, with the demise of the dichotomy, “the finding of a viable substitute may well be the number one problem of public administration today.” Since the late 1960s, ef-
forts have been made to establish the bases of legitimacy for public administration; however, these efforts have been weakened because they start with the faulty premise that public administration could not approximate what its founders in the United States had advocated. A new public administration was being built without a foundation.
There has been a disconcerting tendency in public ad- ministration to caricature ideas that are criticized rather than identifying shortcomings and building on strengths. Along with the strict dichotomy as a strawman model—and the bureaucratic paradigm—have come the neutering of neu- tral competence and the assertion that “technical-rational- ity” is the dominant and all-encompassing mindset of tradi- tional public administration (Adams and Balfour 1998). Since the field began in the United States, there has been support for applying professional knowledge—broadly de- fined to include substantive, public-service, and technical values—in an impartial, nonpartisan way to address public problems. This robust form of neutral competence is con- sistent with definitions by Dunn (1997), Heclo (1975), Rourke (1992), and Wolf (1999). This defining characteris- tic of public administration—its professional indepen- dence—was transformed by its linkage to the strict-di- chotomy model into either passivity or valueless, even amoral, disinterest in the ends of govemment, that is, neu- trality had been divorced from statesmanship (Green 1998).”
To be sure, there are public administrators who are more concemed with means than ends and who assert that ad- ministrators should be given free rein by politicians to use a narrowly defined expertise. There have been city man- agers who used strict separation as a screen to conceal their own power (Newiand 1989).’^There have been cases on a large and small scale of administrators who were incapable of finding the moral fiber to resist harmful policies. Still, commitment to public serving values, substantive ends as well as technical means, and procedural faimess have al- ways been part of the theory and practice of public admin- istration, along with an interest in technique and rational- ity. It is important to understand the rich tradition of the field if we are to build a stronger future for it. This under- standing will force us to abandon simplistic foils—di- chotomy, bureaucratic paradigm, neutral competence too narrowly defined, and technical rationality too broadly applied—to make altemative formulations look stronger. When the continuity in the field of public administration is recognized, we must acknowledge that our accomplish- ments in the past 40 years have been rather modest.’^
Complementarity of Politics and Administration
To avoid slipping back into the view that public ad- ministration began in dichotomy but moved into broader
178 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
roles, it is helpful to have an alternative interpretation. There has been an implicit defining model for political- administrative relationships from the beginning, and this model is important for understanding the current and fu- ture role of public administration. The complementarity of politics and administration is based on the premise that elected officials and administrators join together in the common pursuit of sound govemance. Complementarity entails separate parts, but parts that come together in a mutually supportive way. One fills out the other to create a whole. Complementarity stresses interdependence along with distinct roles; compliance along with independence; respect for political control along with a commitment to shape and implement policy in ways that promote the public interest; deference to elected incumbents along with adherence to the law and support for fair electoral competition; and appreciation of politics along with sup- port for professional standards. The issue is not whether public administrators are “instrumental or usurpative” (Heady 1984, 408)—the standard dichotomy versus nondichotomy options—but how they are both instru- ments and contributors to the political process, that is, instrumental and constitutive (Cook 1996).
Our understanding of administrative roles has changed over time. Still, the elements of complementarity were present in Wilson (1887), they were central to the develop- ment (Woodruff 1919) and early history of the council-man- ager form of govemment at the local level (White 1927),'”* and they were clearly articulated in the 1940s and 1950s before the dichotomy-as-founding-theory view took hold. They are also present in a wide range of new models pre- sented since 1970.’̂ Complementarity recognizes the inter- dependence and reciprocal influence between elected offi- cials and administrators. Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap.
Complementarity reconciles what have seemed to be contradictory—even paradoxical (Harmon 1995)—aspects of public administration. How can politicians maintain control and, at the same time, allow administrators to main- tain their independence to adhere to professional values and standards and to be responsible to the public? The rec- onciliation comes from recognizing the reciprocating val- ues that underlie complementarity. Elected officials could, in theory, dominate administrative practice, but they are constrained by a respect for administrative competence and commitment. Administrators could use their considerable resources to become self-directed, but they are restrained by a commitment to accountability in the complementary relationship.’^ Overhead democracy by citizens and politi- cians can work, but only if it is accompanied by under- girding responsibility from administrators.”
The relationship between elected officials and admin- istrators could be seen as simply the interaction between political control and professional independence. Control involves the capacity to set direction and maintain over- sight, while independence involves asserting professional perspectives in policy formation and adhering to profes- sional standards in implementation. If one explains rela- tionships only in terms of what March and Olson (1995, 7) have called “exchange perspectives,” the interplay of these two forces of control and independence could lead one to dominate or to a balance of the two (Krause 1999). A normative institutionalist perspective (Peters 1999), however, would add that officials seek to act in terms of norms of appropriate behavior that will make institutions work (March and Olson 1995, 25-8). These include the reciprocating values of respect for administrators by elected officials and commitment to accountability by administrators that add balance to the relationship. The interplay between control and independence, with the restraining effect of reciprocating values, produces an array of models for describing the political-administra- tive relationship (see figure 1).
Figure 1 Understanding the Interaction between
Politicians and Administrators
Elected officials:
degree of control
Low
Administrators: level of independence
High
High
Political dominance
Complementarity
Potiticians respect Administrators are administrative committed to
competence and accountability and commitment’ responsiveness’
Low
Stalemate or laissez-faire
Bureaucratic autonomy
‘Reciprocating values that reinforce the position of other set of officials.
Any of these combinations are possible if the defining conditions are present. The political dominance that re- sults from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concem for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. Bureaucratic au- tonomy is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest. In both situ- ations, either the level of control or independence is ex- treme, and the key reciprocating value is not present: Poli- ticians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. One conceptual possibil- ity is the combination of low control and low indepen-
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administrotion 179
Our understanding of administrative roles has changed over time. Still, the elements of complementarity were present in Wilson (1887), they were central to the develop- ment (Woodruff 1919) and early history of the council-man- ager form of govemment at the local level (White 1927),'”* and they were clearly articulated in the 1940s and 1950s before the dichotomy-as-founding-theory view took hold. They are also present in a wide range of new models pre- sented since 1970.’̂ Complementarity recognizes the inter- dependence and reciprocal influence between elected offi- cials and administrators. Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap.
Complementarity reconciles what have seemed to be contradictory—even paradoxical (Harmon 1995)—aspects of public administration. How can politicians maintain control and, at the same time, allow administrators to main- tain their independence to adhere to professional values and standards and to be responsible to the public? The rec- onciliation comes from recognizing the reciprocating val- ues that underlie complementarity. Elected officials could, in theory, dominate administrative practice, but they are constrained by a respect for administrative competence and commitment. Administrators could use their considerable resources to become self-directed, but they are restrained by a commitment to accountability in the complementary relationship.’^ Overhead democracy by citizens and politi- cians can work, but only if it is accompanied by under- girding responsibility from administrators.”
The relationship between elected officials and admin- istrators could be seen as simply the interaction between political control and professional independence. Control involves the capacity to set direction and maintain over- sight, while independence involves asserting professional perspectives in policy formation and adhering to profes- sional standards in implementation. If one explains rela- tionships only in terms of what March and Olson (1995, 7) have called “exchange perspectives,” the interplay of these two forces of control and independence could lead one to dominate or to a balance of the two (Krause 1999). A normative institutionalist perspective (Peters 1999), however, would add that officials seek to act in terms of norms of appropriate behavior that will make institutions work (March and Olson 1995, 25-8). These include the reciprocating values of respect for administrators by elected officials and commitment to accountability by administrators that add balance to the relationship. The interplay between control and independence, with the restraining effect of reciprocating values, produces an array of models for describing the political-administra- tive relationship (see figure 1).
Figure 1 Understanding the Interaction between
Politicians and Administrators
Elected officials:
degree of control
Low
Administrators: level of independence
High
High
Political dominance
Complementarity
Potiticians respect Administrators are administrative committed to
competence and accountability and commitment’ responsiveness’
Low
Stalemate or laissez-faire
Bureaucratic autonomy
‘Reciprocating values that reinforce the position of other set of officials.
Any of these combinations are possible if the defining conditions are present. The political dominance that re- sults from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concem for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. Bureaucratic au- tonomy is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest. In both situ- ations, either the level of control or independence is ex- treme, and the key reciprocating value is not present: Poli- ticians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. One conceptual possibil- ity is the combination of low control and low indepen-
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administrotion 179
dence, producing a “live and let live” attitude among offi- cials. Ironically, Sayre’s dichotomy, which is based on to- tally separate spheres, would logically fit in this category because the distance between the two sets of officials does not contribute to real control or real independence, but to coexistence. In some circumstances, the limited ability to influence other officials could result in stalemate.
The largest space in figure 1 is the zone of comple- mentarity. I would argue that most interactions among of- ficials reflect complementarity, and evidence from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization (Mouritzen and Svara 2001). Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding.’^ A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left comer of the complementarity quadrant, whereas recent experi- ence with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right comer.”One can ar- gue that complementarity is rooted in past thought and practice and has important implications for the future. It is not a new model replacing an old one, but a deeply rooted model that continues to evolve.
Complementarity entails ongoing interaction, recipro- cal influence, and mutual deference between elected offi- cials and administrators. Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor per- formance, and attempt to correct problems with perfor- mance through fine-tuning. Changes in the govemmental process that substantially expand political control and weaken administrative independence (for instance, tilting
the relationship by increased reliance on politically ap- pointed consultants and “hollowing out” of administration [Moe 1994] or weakening generaiist administrative lead- ership in local govemment) weaken the dialogue between elected officials and administrators. Privatization through contracting out breaks the dialogue and replaces it with contract specification and compliance reports. Ironically, contracting out closely approximates the terms of the di- chotomy model, as do performance contracts as KettI (2000, 29) observes, and highlights a central limitation in this kind of approach. Unless it is reserved for services that can be appropriately defined without ongoing broad- based administrative input and appropriately delivered without continuous political oversight, the strict separa- tion of policy makers and service deliverers can lower the quality of govemance and service.
In contrast, with extensive interaction, the knowledge and values of those who do the ongoing work of govem- ment complement the knowledge and values of those who ultimately set the course for govemment and ensure that it stays on course. The complementarity of politics and ad- ministration holds that elected officials and administra- tors—both in regular communication with citizens—need and help each other in a partnership for govemance. Di- viding the partners or skewing the relationship in one di- rection or the other means that an important contribution is missing. If we continue to accept the simple notion that public administration began as a separate instrumental en- tity confined to a narrow sphere of activity, we do a disser- vice to the past, and we run the risk of legitimizing a true dichotomy of policy formation and contracted service de- livery. It is important to appreciate the role of public ad- ministration in the “old” govemance as a basis for under- standing the relationship between public administrators and a wider array of actors in the new govemance.
Notes
1. This article draws on arguments developed at length in Svara (1999a).
2. This claim has more validity with respect to Willoughby (1927). In his view, elected officials and administrators have distinct roles that do not overlap. The “prime function” of the legislator is “to determine policies and give the neces- sary orders for putting these policies into effect” (2). The function of administration is “the putting into effect of poli- cies and carrying out of orders as determined or given by other organs” (11).
3. KettI (2000) carries the specification of traditional public administration too far, however, by claiming that it relied on a clear delineation of roles, with elected officials fram- ing policy and delegating the details to administrators. As
we have seen, early contributors did not insist on such a complete delineation and allowed for the upward flow of policy ideas and influence. Even Finer (1941) conceded that “no one in their right mind would deny the importance of suggestions persuasively presented by the expert” (342).
4. Vieg (1946) and Lepawsky (1949) defended the dichotomy as convenient because it focused public attention on elected officials but did not view it as a barrier to policy involve- ment behind the scenes. Kaufman (1956) presented a broad and complex examination of neutral competence and the politics-administration dichotomy, but it was not central to the coming reformulation of the nature and origins of the dichotomy. He stressed the elimination of partisan politics from govemmental decision making through practices in-
180 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
The largest space in figure 1 is the zone of comple- mentarity. I would argue that most interactions among of- ficials reflect complementarity, and evidence from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization (Mouritzen and Svara 2001). Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding.’^ A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left comer of the complementarity quadrant, whereas recent experi- ence with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right comer.”One can ar- gue that complementarity is rooted in past thought and practice and has important implications for the future. It is not a new model replacing an old one, but a deeply rooted model that continues to evolve.
Complementarity entails ongoing interaction, recipro- cal influence, and mutual deference between elected offi- cials and administrators. Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor per- formance, and attempt to correct problems with perfor- mance through fine-tuning. Changes in the govemmental process that substantially expand political control and weaken administrative independence (for instance, tilting
the relationship by increased reliance on politically ap- pointed consultants and “hollowing out” of administration [Moe 1994] or weakening generaiist administrative lead- ership in local govemment) weaken the dialogue between elected officials and administrators. Privatization through contracting out breaks the dialogue and replaces it with contract specification and compliance reports. Ironically, contracting out closely approximates the terms of the di- chotomy model, as do performance contracts as KettI (2000, 29) observes, and highlights a central limitation in this kind of approach. Unless it is reserved for services that can be appropriately defined without ongoing broad- based administrative input and appropriately delivered without continuous political oversight, the strict separa- tion of policy makers and service deliverers can lower the quality of govemance and service.
In contrast, with extensive interaction, the knowledge and values of those who do the ongoing work of govem- ment complement the knowledge and values of those who ultimately set the course for govemment and ensure that it stays on course. The complementarity of politics and ad- ministration holds that elected officials and administra- tors—both in regular communication with citizens—need and help each other in a partnership for govemance. Di- viding the partners or skewing the relationship in one di- rection or the other means that an important contribution is missing. If we continue to accept the simple notion that public administration began as a separate instrumental en- tity confined to a narrow sphere of activity, we do a disser- vice to the past, and we run the risk of legitimizing a true dichotomy of policy formation and contracted service de- livery. It is important to appreciate the role of public ad- ministration in the “old” govemance as a basis for under- standing the relationship between public administrators and a wider array of actors in the new govemance.
Notes
1. This article draws on arguments developed at length in Svara (1999a).
2. This claim has more validity with respect to Willoughby (1927). In his view, elected officials and administrators have distinct roles that do not overlap. The “prime function” of the legislator is “to determine policies and give the neces- sary orders for putting these policies into effect” (2). The function of administration is “the putting into effect of poli- cies and carrying out of orders as determined or given by other organs” (11).
3. KettI (2000) carries the specification of traditional public administration too far, however, by claiming that it relied on a clear delineation of roles, with elected officials fram- ing policy and delegating the details to administrators. As
we have seen, early contributors did not insist on such a complete delineation and allowed for the upward flow of policy ideas and influence. Even Finer (1941) conceded that “no one in their right mind would deny the importance of suggestions persuasively presented by the expert” (342).
4. Vieg (1946) and Lepawsky (1949) defended the dichotomy as convenient because it focused public attention on elected officials but did not view it as a barrier to policy involve- ment behind the scenes. Kaufman (1956) presented a broad and complex examination of neutral competence and the politics-administration dichotomy, but it was not central to the coming reformulation of the nature and origins of the dichotomy. He stressed the elimination of partisan politics from govemmental decision making through practices in-
180 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
eluding creation of independent boards and commissions as well as civil service. Obviously, policy responsibility was assigned to the boards that were insulated from partisan in- trusion and, by implication, to the administrators as well. Indeed, the discretionary power accumulated by some civil servants contributed to the fragmentation of govemment. Although he observed that the politics-administration di- chotomy was gradually replaced by the “doctrine of the continuity of the policy-formulating process” (1067), this change began after 1910 and accompanied the increasingly closer linkages between administrators and executives. Later, neutral competence was opposed, not because administra- tors in federal agencies were divorced from policy, but be- cause it “encouraged the development of ‘self-directing’ groups within the bureaucracy” (1070).
5. Exceptions were Herring (1936), who felt the “balance of power is shifting” to administration, and Price (1941), who asserted it is not possible for city managers to be anony- mous in their policy leadership.
6. An important exception is Friedrich (1940) who launched an unreasonable attack on Goodnow and misrepresented his views. He claimed that Goodnow made the distinction be- tween politics and administration “an almost absolute dis- tinction” and “an absolute antithesis” (6). Such a complete division of functions would indeed constitute a dichotomy, but Friedrich did not use the term.
7. Waldo’s position is of interest in view of Lynn’s observa- tions about his rejection of what he viewed as established values in administration. Waldo (1948, 109) did not inter- pret Goodnow as advocating a simplistic separation of poli- tics and administration, and he notes that “some more re- cent students have taken the name of Goodnow in vain.” He did, however, advance the practice of lumping together most of the preceding literature and linking it to strict separation. In his summary, Waldo criticizes the “straitjacket” that public administration had made for itself—”the instrumentalist philosophy of the politics-administration formula” (208)— and suggests that the main tenets of public administration emerged before 1914 (211).
8. Sayre did not use the term “politics-administration di- chotomy” in the 1951 article, although he linked Simon’s “fact-value dichotomy” to the “earlier formulation of the separation of politics from administration” (Sayre 1951,5), as did Appleby (1949). In discussing the general-manager plan for large mayor-council cities (1954, 258), he referred to the “politics-administration dilemma” that “plagues” council-manager governments. He foreshadowed the for- mulation and subsequent rejection of the strict dichotomy with the assertion that “council manager doctrine empha- sizes council monopoly over policy,” although in practice, policy leadership from the manager is needed.
9. The term was rarely used before this time; when it was used, it connoted a limited sense of insulating administra- tors from partisan interference, along with recognizing that administrators influence policy in nonpublic ways (see footnote 4).
10. Long (1954) dismissed the possibility of a governmental process that operates in terms of characteristics that are con- tained in a strict-dichotomy model. Administration would have been “a neutral instrument solely devoted to the un- motivated presentation of facts to, and the docile execution of orders from, political superiors” (27). In “Power and Administration,” Long (1949, 259) observed that “the bu- reaucracy under the American political system has a large share of responsibility for the public promotion of policy and even more in organizing the political basis for its sur- vival and growth.”
11. A more balanced and widely held view in the United States and abroad is expressed by Asmeron and Reis (1996, 8-9): “[N]eutrality does not mean that top-level civil servants cannot or should not be involved in the articulation of pub- lic policy. Indeed, senior officials are professionally and morally obliged to provide their political leaders with the best policy alternatives based on sound arguments, relevant precedents, and suitability to the changing environment. The expectation that they will render these services from a non- partisan position is the crux of the matter.”
12. In a crossnational study of the highest appointed adminis- trator in city government in 14 countries, the most aloof and the most influential city managers are found in Ireland, which legally mandates separation of policy and adminis- tration (Asquith and O’Halpin 1998). American city man- agers, often supporters of the dichotomy concept, gave them- selves the highest influence rating in budgeting and the third-highest rating in economic development among the 14 countries (Svara 1999b).
13. Elsewhere (Svara 1999a), I have summarized the value po- sitions that can be derived from the “old” public adminis- tration through the 1950s.
14. Terry(1995,13), one of a relatively small number of schol- ars who recognize the broader view that Woodrow Wilson had of administration, sees that early contributors recog- nized a “complementary” relationship between democracy and bureaucracy.
15. These approaches include the New Public Administration (Marini 1971), and the work of Wamsley et al. (1990), Terry (1995), and Frederickson (1997).
16. Friedrich (1940, 19) observed that responsible administra- tive conduct “is not so much enforced as it is elicited.” Ad- ministrators choose to comply.
17. Redford (1969,71 -2) characterized the concept of overhead democracy—presented as the “traditional model of demo- cratic administration” with “some measure of validity”—as simplistic because it ignored the complex “web of interre- lationships” that mark political-administrative interaction. Meier, Polinard, and Wrinkle (1999) conclude that change in farm credit policy and administration over time is consis- tent with overhead democracy.
18. For example. Price (1941, 573) observed that, in local gov- emment, “the relationship between council and manager is so intimate that it is generally impossible to prove whether the manager is using his own judgment in taking an admin-
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 181
5. Exceptions were Herring (1936), who felt the “balance of power is shifting” to administration, and Price (1941), who asserted it is not possible for city managers to be anony- mous in their policy leadership.
6. An important exception is Friedrich (1940) who launched an unreasonable attack on Goodnow and misrepresented his views. He claimed that Goodnow made the distinction be- tween politics and administration “an almost absolute dis- tinction” and “an absolute antithesis” (6). Such a complete division of functions would indeed constitute a dichotomy, but Friedrich did not use the term.
7. Waldo’s position is of interest in view of Lynn’s observa- tions about his rejection of what he viewed as established values in administration. Waldo (1948, 109) did not inter- pret Goodnow as advocating a simplistic separation of poli- tics and administration, and he notes that “some more re- cent students have taken the name of Goodnow in vain.” He did, however, advance the practice of lumping together most of the preceding literature and linking it to strict separation. In his summary, Waldo criticizes the “straitjacket” that public administration had made for itself—”the instrumentalist philosophy of the politics-administration formula” (208)— and suggests that the main tenets of public administration emerged before 1914 (211).
8. Sayre did not use the term “politics-administration di- chotomy” in the 1951 article, although he linked Simon’s “fact-value dichotomy” to the “earlier formulation of the separation of politics from administration” (Sayre 1951,5), as did Appleby (1949). In discussing the general-manager plan for large mayor-council cities (1954, 258), he referred to the “politics-administration dilemma” that “plagues” council-manager governments. He foreshadowed the for- mulation and subsequent rejection of the strict dichotomy with the assertion that “council manager doctrine empha- sizes council monopoly over policy,” although in practice, policy leadership from the manager is needed.
9. The term was rarely used before this time; when it was used, it connoted a limited sense of insulating administra- tors from partisan interference, along with recognizing that administrators influence policy in nonpublic ways (see footnote 4).
10. Long (1954) dismissed the possibility of a governmental process that operates in terms of characteristics that are con- tained in a strict-dichotomy model. Administration would have been “a neutral instrument solely devoted to the un- motivated presentation of facts to, and the docile execution of orders from, political superiors” (27). In “Power and Administration,” Long (1949, 259) observed that “the bu- reaucracy under the American political system has a large share of responsibility for the public promotion of policy and even more in organizing the political basis for its sur- vival and growth.”
11. A more balanced and widely held view in the United States and abroad is expressed by Asmeron and Reis (1996, 8-9): “[N]eutrality does not mean that top-level civil servants cannot or should not be involved in the articulation of pub- lic policy. Indeed, senior officials are professionally and morally obliged to provide their political leaders with the best policy alternatives based on sound arguments, relevant precedents, and suitability to the changing environment. The expectation that they will render these services from a non- partisan position is the crux of the matter.”
12. In a crossnational study of the highest appointed adminis- trator in city government in 14 countries, the most aloof and the most influential city managers are found in Ireland, which legally mandates separation of policy and adminis- tration (Asquith and O’Halpin 1998). American city man- agers, often supporters of the dichotomy concept, gave them- selves the highest influence rating in budgeting and the third-highest rating in economic development among the 14 countries (Svara 1999b).
13. Elsewhere (Svara 1999a), I have summarized the value po- sitions that can be derived from the “old” public adminis- tration through the 1950s.
14. Terry(1995,13), one of a relatively small number of schol- ars who recognize the broader view that Woodrow Wilson had of administration, sees that early contributors recog- nized a “complementary” relationship between democracy and bureaucracy.
15. These approaches include the New Public Administration (Marini 1971), and the work of Wamsley et al. (1990), Terry (1995), and Frederickson (1997).
16. Friedrich (1940, 19) observed that responsible administra- tive conduct “is not so much enforced as it is elicited.” Ad- ministrators choose to comply.
17. Redford (1969,71 -2) characterized the concept of overhead democracy—presented as the “traditional model of demo- cratic administration” with “some measure of validity”—as simplistic because it ignored the complex “web of interre- lationships” that mark political-administrative interaction. Meier, Polinard, and Wrinkle (1999) conclude that change in farm credit policy and administration over time is consis- tent with overhead democracy.
18. For example. Price (1941, 573) observed that, in local gov- emment, “the relationship between council and manager is so intimate that it is generally impossible to prove whether the manager is using his own judgment in taking an admin-
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 181
istrative action or is acting under coercion or threat by the council … or whether the council in adopting a policy is following the ideas originated by its members or the advice of the city manager.”
19. These themes are developed further and variations in comple- mentary relationships are developed in Mouritzen and Svara (2001, ch. 10).
References
Adams, Guy B., and Danny L. Balfour. 1998. Administrative Evil. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Appleby, Paul H. 1949. Policy and Administration. University, AL: University of Alabama Press.
Asmeron, Haile K., and Eliza P. Reis, eds. 1996. Democratiza- tion and Political Neutrality. London: Macmillan.
Asquith, Andy, and Eunan O’Halpin. 1998. Power and Respon- sibility: The Role of the Manager in Irish Local Govemment. In The Anonymous Leader, Appointed CEOs in Western Lo- cal Government, edited by Kurt Klaudi Klausen and Annick Magnier, 64-78. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press.
Blachly, Frederick, and Miriam E. Oakman. 1934. Administra- tive Legislation and Adjudication. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Cook, Brian J. 1996. Bureaucracy and Self-Government. Balti- more, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dahl, Robert A. 1947. The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems. Public Administration Review 7(1): 1-11.
Dimock, Marshall E. 1936. The Meaning and Scope of Public Administration. In The Frontiers of Public Administration, edited by John M. Gaus, Leonard D. White, and Marshall E. Dimock, 1-12. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dunn, Delmer. 1997. Politics and Administration at the Top: Lessons from Down Under. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pitts- burgh Press.
Fesler, James W. 1957. Administrative Literature and the Sec- ond Hoover Commission Reports. American Political Sci- ence Review 51(1): 135-57.
Finer, Herman. 1941. Administrative Responsibility in Demo- cratic Govemment. Public Administration Review 1(4): 335- 50.
Frederickson, H. George. 1997. The Spirit of Public Adminis- tration. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Friedrich, C. J. 1940. Public Policy and the Nature of Adminis- trative Responsibility. PMfe/i’c/”o/Zcy 1: 1-24.
Gaus, John M. 1950. Trends in the Theory of Public Adminis- tration. PMMC Afifw/’/jwrra/iow/?ev(ew 10(3): 161-8.
Gaus, John M., Leonard D. White, and Marshall E. Dimock. 1936. The Frontiers of Public Administration. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Golembiewski, Robert T. 1977. Public Administration as a De- veloping Discipline, Part /. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Green, Richard. 1998. Impartiality and Administrative States- manship. In Active Duty: Public Administration as Demo- cratic Statesmanship, edited by Peter A. Lawler, Robert M. Shaefer, and David L. Schaefer, 91-111. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Gulick, Luther. 1933. Politics, Administration, and the “New Deal.” The Annals 169: 55-66.
Haines, Charles G., and Marshall E. Dimock, eds. 1935. Essays on the Law and Practice of Governmental Administration. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Harmon, Michael M. 1995. Responsibility as Paradox: A Cri- tique of Rational Discourse. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Pub- lications.
Heady, Ferrel. 1984. Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Heclo, Hugh. 1975. OMB and the Presidency—the Problem of “Neutral Competence.” The Public Interest 38: 80-98.
Herring, E. Pendleton. 1936. Public Administration and the Pub- lic Interest. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hyneman, Charles. 1939. Administrative Reorganization: An Adventure into Science; Theology. The Journal of Politics 1(1): 62-75.
Kaufman, Herbert. 1956. Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration. American Political Science Review 50(4): 1057-1975.
KettI, Donald F. 2000. Public Administration at the Millenium: The State of the Field. Journal of Public Administration Re- search and Theory 10(1): 7-34.
Krause, George A. 1999. A Two-Way Street: The Institutional Dynamics ofthe Modern Administrative State. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Lepawsky, Albert. 1949. Administration: The Art and Science of Organization and Management. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Levitan, D. M. 1943. Political Ends and Administrative Means. Public Administration Review 3(4): 353-7.
Long, Norton E. 1949. Power and Administration. Public Ad- ministration Review 9(4): 257-64.
. 1954. Public Policy and Administration: The Goals of Rationality and Responsibility. Public Administration Review 14(1): 22-31.
March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen. 1995. Democratic Gover- nance. New York: Free Press.
Marini, Frank, ed. 1971. Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing.
Martin, Roscoe. 1952. Political Science and Public Administra- tion—A Note on the State of the Union. American Political Science Review 46(3): 660-76.
Meier, Kenneth J., J. L. Polinard, and Robert D. Wrinkle. 1999. Politics, Bureaucracy, and Farm Credit. Public Administra- tion Review 59(4): 293-302.
182 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
19. These themes are developed further and variations in comple- mentary relationships are developed in Mouritzen and Svara (2001, ch. 10).
References
Adams, Guy B., and Danny L. Balfour. 1998. Administrative Evil. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Appleby, Paul H. 1949. Policy and Administration. University, AL: University of Alabama Press.
Asmeron, Haile K., and Eliza P. Reis, eds. 1996. Democratiza- tion and Political Neutrality. London: Macmillan.
Asquith, Andy, and Eunan O’Halpin. 1998. Power and Respon- sibility: The Role of the Manager in Irish Local Govemment. In The Anonymous Leader, Appointed CEOs in Western Lo- cal Government, edited by Kurt Klaudi Klausen and Annick Magnier, 64-78. Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press.
Blachly, Frederick, and Miriam E. Oakman. 1934. Administra- tive Legislation and Adjudication. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Cook, Brian J. 1996. Bureaucracy and Self-Government. Balti- more, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dahl, Robert A. 1947. The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems. Public Administration Review 7(1): 1-11.
Dimock, Marshall E. 1936. The Meaning and Scope of Public Administration. In The Frontiers of Public Administration, edited by John M. Gaus, Leonard D. White, and Marshall E. Dimock, 1-12. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dunn, Delmer. 1997. Politics and Administration at the Top: Lessons from Down Under. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pitts- burgh Press.
Fesler, James W. 1957. Administrative Literature and the Sec- ond Hoover Commission Reports. American Political Sci- ence Review 51(1): 135-57.
Finer, Herman. 1941. Administrative Responsibility in Demo- cratic Govemment. Public Administration Review 1(4): 335- 50.
Frederickson, H. George. 1997. The Spirit of Public Adminis- tration. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Friedrich, C. J. 1940. Public Policy and the Nature of Adminis- trative Responsibility. PMfe/i’c/”o/Zcy 1: 1-24.
Gaus, John M. 1950. Trends in the Theory of Public Adminis- tration. PMMC Afifw/’/jwrra/iow/?ev(ew 10(3): 161-8.
Gaus, John M., Leonard D. White, and Marshall E. Dimock. 1936. The Frontiers of Public Administration. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Golembiewski, Robert T. 1977. Public Administration as a De- veloping Discipline, Part /. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Green, Richard. 1998. Impartiality and Administrative States- manship. In Active Duty: Public Administration as Demo- cratic Statesmanship, edited by Peter A. Lawler, Robert M. Shaefer, and David L. Schaefer, 91-111. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Gulick, Luther. 1933. Politics, Administration, and the “New Deal.” The Annals 169: 55-66.
Haines, Charles G., and Marshall E. Dimock, eds. 1935. Essays on the Law and Practice of Governmental Administration. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Harmon, Michael M. 1995. Responsibility as Paradox: A Cri- tique of Rational Discourse. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Pub- lications.
Heady, Ferrel. 1984. Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Heclo, Hugh. 1975. OMB and the Presidency—the Problem of “Neutral Competence.” The Public Interest 38: 80-98.
Herring, E. Pendleton. 1936. Public Administration and the Pub- lic Interest. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hyneman, Charles. 1939. Administrative Reorganization: An Adventure into Science; Theology. The Journal of Politics 1(1): 62-75.
Kaufman, Herbert. 1956. Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration. American Political Science Review 50(4): 1057-1975.
KettI, Donald F. 2000. Public Administration at the Millenium: The State of the Field. Journal of Public Administration Re- search and Theory 10(1): 7-34.
Krause, George A. 1999. A Two-Way Street: The Institutional Dynamics ofthe Modern Administrative State. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Lepawsky, Albert. 1949. Administration: The Art and Science of Organization and Management. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Levitan, D. M. 1943. Political Ends and Administrative Means. Public Administration Review 3(4): 353-7.
Long, Norton E. 1949. Power and Administration. Public Ad- ministration Review 9(4): 257-64.
. 1954. Public Policy and Administration: The Goals of Rationality and Responsibility. Public Administration Review 14(1): 22-31.
March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen. 1995. Democratic Gover- nance. New York: Free Press.
Marini, Frank, ed. 1971. Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing.
Martin, Roscoe. 1952. Political Science and Public Administra- tion—A Note on the State of the Union. American Political Science Review 46(3): 660-76.
Meier, Kenneth J., J. L. Polinard, and Robert D. Wrinkle. 1999. Politics, Bureaucracy, and Farm Credit. Public Administra- tion Review 59(4): 293-302.
182 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, Vol. 61, No. 2
Miller, Gary. 2000. Above Politics: Credible Commitment and Efficiency in the Design of Public Agencies. Journal of Pub- lic Administration Research and Theory 10(2): 289-327.
Moe, Ronald C. 1994. The “Reinventing Govemment” Exer- cise: Misinterpreting the Problem, Misjudging the Conse- quences. Public Administration Review 54(2): 11-122.
Montjoy, Robert S., and Douglas J. Watson. 1995. A Case for Reinterpreted Dichotomy of Politics and Administration as a Professional Standard in Council-Manager Govemment. Pub- lic Administration Review 55(3): 231-9.
Morstein Marx, Fritz. 1946. Elements of Public Administration. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Mosher, Frederick C. 1968. Democracy and the Public Service. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mouritzen, Poul Erik, and James H. Svara. 2001. Leadership at the Apex: Politicians and Administrators in Western Local Governments. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, forthcoming.
Newiand, Chester A. 1989. The Future of Council-Manager Govemment. In Ideal and Practice in City Management, ed- ited by H. George Frederickson, 257-71. Washington, DC: Intemational City Management Association.
Peters, B. Guy. 1995. The Politics of Bureaucracy. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
. 1999. Institutional Theory in Political Science: The “New Institutionalism” New York: Pinter.
Pfiffner, John M. 1935. Public Administration. New York: Ronald Press.
Price, Don K. 1941. The Promotion of the City Manager Plan. Public Opinion Quarterly 5(4): 563-78.
Rabin, Jack, and James S. Bowman, eds. 1984. Politics and Ad- ministration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Admin- istration. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Redford, Emmette S. 1969. Democracy in the Administrative State. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ridley, Clarence C , and Orin Nolting. 1934. The City Manager Profession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rohr, John A. 1986. To Run a Constitution: The Legitimacy of the Administrative State. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Rourke, Francis E. 1992. Responsiveness and Neutral Compe- tence in American Bureaucracy. Public Administration Re- view 52(6): 539^6.
Rutgers, Mark R. 1997. Beyond Woodrow Wilson: The Identity of the Study of Public Administration in Historical Perspec- tive. Administration and Society 29(3): 276-300.
Sayre, Wallace S. 1951. Trends of a Decade in Administrative Values. Public Administration Review 11(1): 1-9.
. 1954. The General Manager Idea for Large Cities. Pub- lic Administration Review 14(4): 253-8.
. 1958. Premises of Public Administration: Past and
Schachter, Hindy Lauer. 1989. Frederick Taylor and the Public Administration Community: A Reevaluation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Simon, Herbert A. 1946. The Proverbs of Administration. Pub- lic Administration Review 6(1): 53-67.
Sfillman, Richard J. II. 1974. The Rise ofthe City Manager. Al- buquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
. 1997. American vs. European Public Administration: Does Public Administration Make the Modem State, or Does the State Make Public Administration? Public Administra- tion Review 57(4): 332-8.
Stone, Harold A., Don K. Price, and Kathryn H. Stone. 1940. City Manager Government in the United States. Chicago: Public Administration Service.
Svara, James H. 1998. The Politics-Administration Dichotomy Model as Aberration. Public Administration Review 58(1): 51-8.
. 1999a. Complementarity of Politics and Administra- tion as a Legitimate Altemative to the Dichotomy Model. Administration and Society 30(6): 676-705.
-. 1999b. U.S. City Managers and Administrators in a
Emerging. Public Administration Review 18(2): 102-5.
Global Perspective. The Municipal Year Book 1999. Wash- ington, DC: Intemational City Management Association. 25- 33.
Terry, Larry D. 1995. Leadership of Public Bureaucracies: The Administrator as Conservator. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Van Riper, Paul P. 1984. The Politics-Administration Dichotomy: Concept or Reality? In Politics and Administration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, edited by Jack Rabin and James S. Bowman, 203-18. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Vieg, John Albert. 1946. The Growth of Public Administration. In Elements of Public Administration, edited by Fritz Morstein Marx, 3-26. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Waldo, Dwight. 1948. The Administrative State. New York: Ronald Press.
Wamsley, Gary L. et al. 1990. Refounding Public Administra- tion. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
White, Leonard. 1926. Introduction to the Study of Public Ad- ministration. New York: Macmillan.
. 1927. The City Manager. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press.
Willoughby, W. F. 1927. Principles of Public Administration. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Wilson, Woodrow. 1887. The Study of Administration. Political Science Quarterly 2(2): 197-222.
Wolf, Patrick J. 1999. Neutral and Responsive Competence: The Bureau ofthe Budget, 1939-1944, Revisited. Administration and Society 3l{l): 142-67.
Woodruff, Clinton Rogers, ed. 1919. /I New Municipal Program. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 1
Moe, Ronald C. 1994. The “Reinventing Govemment” Exer- cise: Misinterpreting the Problem, Misjudging the Conse- quences. Public Administration Review 54(2): 11-122.
Montjoy, Robert S., and Douglas J. Watson. 1995. A Case for Reinterpreted Dichotomy of Politics and Administration as a Professional Standard in Council-Manager Govemment. Pub- lic Administration Review 55(3): 231-9.
Morstein Marx, Fritz. 1946. Elements of Public Administration. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Mosher, Frederick C. 1968. Democracy and the Public Service. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mouritzen, Poul Erik, and James H. Svara. 2001. Leadership at the Apex: Politicians and Administrators in Western Local Governments. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, forthcoming.
Newiand, Chester A. 1989. The Future of Council-Manager Govemment. In Ideal and Practice in City Management, ed- ited by H. George Frederickson, 257-71. Washington, DC: Intemational City Management Association.
Peters, B. Guy. 1995. The Politics of Bureaucracy. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
. 1999. Institutional Theory in Political Science: The “New Institutionalism” New York: Pinter.
Pfiffner, John M. 1935. Public Administration. New York: Ronald Press.
Price, Don K. 1941. The Promotion of the City Manager Plan. Public Opinion Quarterly 5(4): 563-78.
Rabin, Jack, and James S. Bowman, eds. 1984. Politics and Ad- ministration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Admin- istration. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Redford, Emmette S. 1969. Democracy in the Administrative State. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ridley, Clarence C , and Orin Nolting. 1934. The City Manager Profession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rohr, John A. 1986. To Run a Constitution: The Legitimacy of the Administrative State. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Rourke, Francis E. 1992. Responsiveness and Neutral Compe- tence in American Bureaucracy. Public Administration Re- view 52(6): 539^6.
Rutgers, Mark R. 1997. Beyond Woodrow Wilson: The Identity of the Study of Public Administration in Historical Perspec- tive. Administration and Society 29(3): 276-300.
Sayre, Wallace S. 1951. Trends of a Decade in Administrative Values. Public Administration Review 11(1): 1-9.
. 1954. The General Manager Idea for Large Cities. Pub- lic Administration Review 14(4): 253-8.
. 1958. Premises of Public Administration: Past and
Schachter, Hindy Lauer. 1989. Frederick Taylor and the Public Administration Community: A Reevaluation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Simon, Herbert A. 1946. The Proverbs of Administration. Pub- lic Administration Review 6(1): 53-67.
Sfillman, Richard J. II. 1974. The Rise ofthe City Manager. Al- buquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
. 1997. American vs. European Public Administration: Does Public Administration Make the Modem State, or Does the State Make Public Administration? Public Administra- tion Review 57(4): 332-8.
Stone, Harold A., Don K. Price, and Kathryn H. Stone. 1940. City Manager Government in the United States. Chicago: Public Administration Service.
Svara, James H. 1998. The Politics-Administration Dichotomy Model as Aberration. Public Administration Review 58(1): 51-8.
. 1999a. Complementarity of Politics and Administra- tion as a Legitimate Altemative to the Dichotomy Model. Administration and Society 30(6): 676-705.
-. 1999b. U.S. City Managers and Administrators in a
Emerging. Public Administration Review 18(2): 102-5.
Global Perspective. The Municipal Year Book 1999. Wash- ington, DC: Intemational City Management Association. 25- 33.
Terry, Larry D. 1995. Leadership of Public Bureaucracies: The Administrator as Conservator. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Van Riper, Paul P. 1984. The Politics-Administration Dichotomy: Concept or Reality? In Politics and Administration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, edited by Jack Rabin and James S. Bowman, 203-18. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Vieg, John Albert. 1946. The Growth of Public Administration. In Elements of Public Administration, edited by Fritz Morstein Marx, 3-26. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Waldo, Dwight. 1948. The Administrative State. New York: Ronald Press.
Wamsley, Gary L. et al. 1990. Refounding Public Administra- tion. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
White, Leonard. 1926. Introduction to the Study of Public Ad- ministration. New York: Macmillan.
. 1927. The City Manager. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press.
Willoughby, W. F. 1927. Principles of Public Administration. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Wilson, Woodrow. 1887. The Study of Administration. Political Science Quarterly 2(2): 197-222.
Wolf, Patrick J. 1999. Neutral and Responsive Competence: The Bureau ofthe Budget, 1939-1944, Revisited. Administration and Society 3l{l): 142-67.
Woodruff, Clinton Rogers, ed. 1919. /I New Municipal Program. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Complementarity of Politics and Administration in the Past and Future of Public Administration 1
Describe how the financial statements (the income statement, statement of retained earnings, balance sheet and statement of cash flows) are interrelated. Provide at least two examples
Discussion Question:
Describe how the financial statements (the income statement, statement of retained earnings, balance sheet and statement of cash flows) are interrelated. Provide at least two examples. –
Plz reply to Brian comment – The income statement reports whether the business had a net income or net loss. Its a summary of the business revenues and expenses for a specific period of time.
Essay
For this assignment use the link provided http://www.sec.gov/, select filings, company filing search, enter your company name in the search company name box. Look for the last annual filing called Annual Report or 10-K. Open the file to review the company’s financial statements. Use these financial statements to write your paper, calculate the ratios requested and respond to the balance of the questions.
This assignment is designed to teach you how to research Apple Inc. or a company of your choice. You will be performing an analysis of the financial statements of a publicly traded company.
1. To obtain these financial statements. you will need to access http://www.sec.gov/ 2. Once you are on the SEC website, click on “Company Filings” in the top right corner of the page, located under the search box. 3. You may then search by the company name or ticker symbol to locate the company you want to research. 4. Once you have obtained your company’s financial statements, it is time begin your analysis. Within your analysis you must include, but are not limited to, the following information: The company’s current ratio, debt to equity ratio, return on equity, and whether the company is improving over time. 5. You will need to support your analysis with at least one scholarly reference. I have one from the university that I will email you. Use your scholarly reference(s) to support your analysis of the company and its financial statements.
Your essay should be a minimum of two pages in length and follow APA guidelines.
EBSCO Publishing Citation Format: APA (American Psychological Assoc.):
NOTE: Review the instructions at
http://support.ebsco.com/help/?int=ehost&lang=en&feature_id=APA and make any necessary corrections before using. Pay special attention to personal names, capitalization, and dates. Always consult your library resources for the exact formatting and punctuation guidelines.
References
SEITZ, P. (2017, July 31). Apple Q3 Earnings Consensus: Just Get It Over With. Investors Business Daily. p. 1.
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Section: Click Apple Q3 Earnings Consensus: Just Get It Over With
With investors focused on Apple’s (AAPL) next-generation smartphone, expected to be unveiled in September, the company’s June-quarter results that are due out after the market close Tuesday are seen by many as a “nonevent.”
Even if Apple misses consensus estimates for iPhone sales in the quarter, analysts will chalk it up to customers simply postponing purchases and waiting for the company’s latest smartphones.
Analysts are expected to key in on the company’s September-quarter guidance and commentary for clues as to whether production of the rumored iPhone 8 is behind schedule, as has been speculated.
Drexel Hamilton analyst Brian White said Apple investors are “just looking to get (fiscal) Q3 over with” so they can focus on the new iPhone product cycle.
“Apple is currently in the seasonal doldrums for the iPhone as the June quarter has historically marked the revenue low point of the year; however, the ramp schedule of the iPhone 8 will dictate if the September quarter could mark the trough this year,” White said in a note to clients Monday. “During our China tech tour in April, we highlighted our concern that the 5.8-inch OLED iPhone 8 could be delayed by several weeks and this view has gained momentum from Wall Street over the past couple of months.”
IBD’S TAKE: Apple stock has an IBD Composite Rating of 75, meaning it has outperformed 75% of stocks in key metrics over the past 12 months. For more information on Apple, visit the IBD Stock Checkup.
White rates Apple stock as buy with a price target of 202.
Apple stock fell 0.5% to 148.73 on the stock market today. Shares have fallen for the past three trading sessions. The stock ended the regular session Monday just below its 50-day moving average, a key support level.
RBC Capital Markets analyst Amit Daryanani thinks the iPhone 8 may not ship until October, vs. the usual mid- to late September time frame for new iPhones. Also, volume shipments might not occur until the November-December time frame, he said.
“We think a delay will not change the demand dynamics for iPhones (fairly captive demand) or undermine the positive iPhone upgrade cycle narrative,” Daryanani said in a report Monday. He reiterated his outperform rating and price target of 168.
A delay in availability of the iPhone 8 could reflect Apple’s “increasing difficulty in delivering innovation and/or slipping execution,” Wells Fargo Securities analyst Maynard Um said in a report Sunday.
Plus, rumored higher pricing for the OLED-screen iPhone 8 could dampen demand, he said.
“While we would expect early adopters to drive the December quarter, we worry about sustained demand presuming a low-end $1,099 price point particularly with the British pound equivalent nearly $1,400 and the euro equivalent nearly $1,500 (if Apple follows its typical international pricing strategy and assuming Apple does not further adjust international pricing upward for currency or component pricing),” Um said.
Um rates Apple stock as market perform with a price target of 140.
For the June quarter, Apple’s fiscal Q3, Wall Street expects the company to earn $1.57 a share, up 11% year over year, on sales of $44.89 billion, up 6%.
For the fiscal fourth quarter, analysts are looking for Apple to earn $1.81 a share, up 8%, on sales of $49.21 billion, up 5%.
Wall Street is forecasting iPhone sales of 41 million units in its fiscal third quarter and 46 million in the fourth.