Paper 1 and 2 background
Let’s begin here with an excerpt from Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: artistry, choice, and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley. Note the assumptions of the Political Frame, as you will use these to guide the writing of your Case:
Assumptions of the Political Frame
The political frame views organizations as living, screaming political arenas that host a complex web of individual and group interests. Five propositions summarize the perspective:
1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and interest groups.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.
3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources—who gets what.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the most important asset.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders.
All five propositions of the political frame came to the fore in the Challenger incident:
1. Organizations are coalitions. NASA did not run the space shuttle program in isolation. The agency was part of a complex coalition including contractors, Congress, the White House, the military, the media—even the American public. Consider, for example, why Christa McAuliffe–was aboard. Her expertise as a social science teacher was not critical to the mission. But the American public was bored with white male pilots in space. Human interest was good for both NASA and Congress; it built public support for the space program. McAuliffe’s participation was a magnet for the media because it made for a great human interest story. Three years earlier, Sally Ride generated excitement as the first female astronaut. Now the idea of putting an ordinary citizen in space—especially a teacher—caught the public’s imagination. Symbolically, Christa McAuliffe represented all Americans. Everyone flew with her.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members. NASA’s hunger for funding competed with the public’s interest in lower taxes. Astronauts’ concerns about safety were at odds with pressures on NASA and its contractors to maintain an ambitious flight schedule.
3. Important decisions involve allocating scarce resources. On the eve of the Challenger launch, key parties struggled to balance conflicting pressures. Everyone from Pres. Ronald Reagan to the average citizen was waiting for the first teacher to fly in space. Higher safety carried a high price—not just money, but further erosion of support from key constituents for both Morton Thiokol and NASA. Survivor, a pioneer of “reality” television, guaranteed political infighting because the rules allowed for only one winner.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central and power the most important asset. The teleconference on the eve of the launch began as a debate between the contractor and NASA. As a sole customer, NASA was in the driver’s seat. When managers at Morton Thiokol sensed NASA’s level of disappointment and frustration, they asked for time to caucus. The scene shifted to a tense standoff between engineers and managers. Engineers were unable leverage their expertise, their primary source of power, into a sufficiently persuasive case. Managers used their authority to recommend the launch despite the opposition.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders. Political bargaining with the help of powerful allies got Morton Thiokol into the rocket motor business. Thiokol’s engineers had been attempting to increase management’s attention to the booster joint problem for many months. But acknowledging a problem, in addition to costing substantial time and money, risked eroding Morton Thiokol’s credibility. A large and profitable contract was hanging in the balance.
The assumptions of the political frame outline sources of power dynamics. A coalition forms because of interdependence among its members; they need one another, even though their interests may only partly overlap. The assumption of enduring difference implies that political activity is more visible and dominant under conditions of diversity than of homogeneity. Agreement and harmony are easier to achieve when everyone shares similar values, beliefs, and culture.
The concept of scarce resources suggests that politics will be more salient and intense in difficult times. Schools and colleges, for example, have lived through alternating times of feast and famine in response to peaks and valleys in economic and demographic trends. When money and students are plentiful (as they were in the 1960s and again in the 1990s), administrators spend time determining which buildings to erect and programs to initiate. Conversely, when resources dry up, conflict mushrooms and administrators often succumb to political forces they neither understand nor control.
Another key political issue is power—its distribution and exercise. Power in organizations is basically the capacity to get things done. Pfeffer (1992, p. 30) defines power as “the potential ability to influence behavior, to change the course of events, to overcome resistance, and to get people to do things they would not otherwise do.” Russ (1994, p. 38) puts it more strongly as the ability to “make one’s will prevail and to attain one’s goal.” Social scientists have often emphasized tight linkage between power and dependency: if A has something B wants, A has leverage. In much of organizational life, individuals and groups are interdependent; they need things from one another, and power relationships are multidirectional. From the view of the political frame, power is a “daily mechanism of our social existence” (Crozier and Friedberg, 1977, p. 32).
The final proposition of the political frame emphasizes that goals are set not by fiat at the top but through an ongoing process of negotiation and interaction among key players. To illustrate, consider another example: a commitment China made in December 2001 to promote its accession to the World Trade Organization. The Chinese government promised to get serious about protecting intellectual property, ensuring that products carrying labels such as Coca-Cola, Microsoft, Sony, and Rolex were authentic. The central government passed laws, threw the book at the occasional unlucky offender, blustered in the media, and put pressure on local governments. Yet six months later, name-brand knockoffs and pirated software were still on sale all over China, even a few blocks from Tiananmen Square” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 186-9).
Let’s continue our discussion with this interesting presentation on the Political Frame:
Jacobs, R.M. (n.d.). Theories of practice: The political frame. Villanova University. Retrieved on May 1, 2014 from http://www83.homepage.villanova.edu/richard.jacobs/MPA%208002/Powerpoint/8002%20MPA/political.ppt
Finally, be sure to review the following presentation relating to power, politics, and conflict:
Hogan, R.L. (n.d). Chapter 9: Power, conflict, and coalitions. Eastern Illinois University. Retrieved on May 12, 2014 from http://www.eiu.edu/~lhogan/Bolman%20&%20Deal%20ch09.ppt 
PAPER 1
Begin by visiting the Walt Disney Company website:
The Walt Disney Company. (2014). Retrieved on May 8, 2014 from http://thewaltdisneycompany.com/
The following articles provide a good starting point concerning former CEO Eisner’s tenure with the Walt Disney Company:
White, D. (2005, Oct 01). When Mickey finally turned on his master. Michael Eisner’s reign at Disney is over. Dominic White reports. The Daily Telegraph.Retrieved from Proquest.
Consider Michael Karpeles’ article relating to politics in the Disney boardroom:
Karpeles, M. D. (2005). Boardroom lessons from the Disney/Ovitz case. Corporate Board, 26(155), 6-10. Retrieved on June 10, 2014 from EBSCO – Business Source Complete.
Finally, read the following case study:
Forbes, W., & Watson, R. (n.d.). Destructive corporate leadership and board loyalty bias: A case study of Michael Eisner’s long tenure at Disney Corporation. City University London. Retrieved on June 10, 2014 from http://www.cass.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/56372/2A_Forbes.pdf
Case Assignment
After you have reviewed the contents of the Walt Disney Company website, completed the above readings and those provided at the Background page of Module 3, and performed additional research from the library and the internet, write a 6- to 7-page paper in which you do the following:
Using the following five assumptions of the Political Frame, complete an in-depth assessment of the Walt Disney Company:
1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and interest groups.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.
3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources—who gets what.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the most important asset.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders.
PAPER 2
In the Module 3 SLP, you will write a 3- to 4-page paper in which you will apply the Political Frame to the organization in which you are currently employed (or in which you have worked previously). 
Assignment
The Module 3 SLP requires that you write a 3- to 4-page paper, in which you address the following: 
After giving a brief description of the organization in which you presently work (or in which you have previously worked), apply the Political Frame to 2-3 examples of political behaviors that are presently occurring – or have occurred – within your organization. 
Keys to the Assignment
The key aspects of this assignment that should be covered in your paper include the following:
· Briefly describe your organization – name, what it does, size (number of employees, annual revenue, relative market share, etc.);
· Choose 2 or 3 examples of political activities within your organization. These might include, e.g., networking and coalition building, informal communications, bargaining and negotiation (for power or for resources), etc. etc.
· Using Bolman and Deal’s Political Frame as a lens, discuss the relative impact of the political characteristics or events you have identified (do the political behaviors you have cited have negligible impact on the organization as a whole, or are do they have more significant impact instead?).
· What are the consequences and outcomes of the political behaviors you have identified? Are they positive or negative, good or bad for the company for the short-term? For the longer run (decisions that benefit the short-term are often in conflict with longer-term outcomes, and vice-versa)? Explain.
PAPER 3 and 4 Background
All readings are required unless noted as “Optional” or “Not Required.”
High and Low Context The definitive work on context was originated by anthropologist Edward T. Hall. He differentiated between high- and low-context cultures. Context refers to the background or framework within which communication takes place.
High-context cultures place a high value on relationships. Business transactions cannot be successful unless based on a foundation of trust, so taking the time to build trust is an essential first step to any commercial activity. Hall explained that these cultures are collectivistic, placing greater value on group harmony than individual success.
Because these cultures are intuitive, people rely on impressions and feelings more than reason or logic. What is expressed in words is less important than the context—things like gestures, tone of voice, general affect, or even the speaker’s family history and position in society. These cultures tend to be homogeneous, and enjoy a shared history.
High-context communication tends to be indirect. However, if you force a direct yes or no answer, the response is likely to be yes (even if the “real” answer is no), lest the speaker risk offending you. Outsiders may find high-context communication to be overly formal and even obsequious. Flowery language, self-effacement, and elaborate apologies are common. Clusters of high-context cultures can be found in Asia, Africa, South America, and the Middle East.
Low-context cultures are logical, evaluative and analytic. Decisions are made not on intuition or emotion, but facts and data. Business transactions are consummated with explicit contracts and written agreements, a practice which persons from high-context cultures may interpret as signifying a lack of trust. Low-context cultures tend to be individualistic.
Communications tend to be straightforward, direct, and action-oriented. Arguments are linear. Language is efficient and precise, and statements are taken literally. Clusters can be found in Western Europe and North America.
The following video offers more insight into high- and low-context communication:
Schwander, J. (2013). Low and High Context Culture: Interpersonal communication. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uMGu89XBcT0
Application: Negotiation
The following article by Brett is an excellent overview of how negotiations are influenced by culture. There is an excellent section on the role high and low context plays in negotiation strategies and tactics.
Brett, J. M. (2000). Culture and negotiation. International Journal of Psychology 35(2), 97–104. Retrieved from: http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic551848.files/Brett.pdf
Relationship to Time
Hall also did a considerable amount of work on the topic of time and how it is perceived in different cultures. He proposed that time is experienced along a continuum, from monochronic (time is linear) to polychronic (time is simultaneous).
In monochronic culture, people tend to do just one thing at a time. Schedules and time commitments are taken very seriously and interruptions are not valued.
Polychronic cultures are characterized by people doing many things at the same time. Interruptions are handled with ease as plans can be changed easily and often. Relationships are more salient than schedules, so promptness is less important than the bond between the individuals involved.
Interactions between the two cultural types can be frustrating. Monochronic individuals cannot understand why a meeting doesn’t start on time and is continually interrupted with phone calls. They can interpret such behavior as insulting, indicating disinterest or disrespect.
On the other hand, an individual from a polychromic culture cannot understand why schedules and task completion takes such precedence over relationships. He or she may not think that measuring output in terms of time is relevant.
Hall’s writings bring to life this type of culture clash over the way time is conceptualized. Since he was trained as an anthropologist, his writings on the topic take on a decidedly ethnographic flavor. The following slide show provides a bit of background on Hall and his writings on time orientation.
Add, M. M. (2013). Monochronic and Polychronic Time, Prezi. Retrieved from http://prezi.com/e08xcxjafzli/monochronic-and-polychronic-time-article-summary/
Application: Diplomacy and Cultural Differences in Communication
The following interview with Dr Hans J. Roth, Ambassador for Cross-Border Cooperation at the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, highlights the challenges that are created by divides in the ways people communicate and think about space and time.
Roth, H. J. (2012). Culture, space, and time—Problems in intercultural communication, The International Relations and Security Network. Retrieved from http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?ots783=4888caa0-b3db-1461-98b9-e20e7b9c13d4&id=154696
Gestures, Personal Space and Eye Contact
Over 90% of what you communicate is non-verbal—through gestures, body language, and tone of voice. This section considers the question of what are you communicating through your body language—or non-verbal behavior. These messages can vary across cultures and convey very different meanings depending on which cultures are interacting. So it is important to be well versed on what different types of non-verbals actually mean in different cultures.
The following video focuses on gestures, and how the same gestures can have different meaning in different cultures, with footage of people “acting naturally” in various cultures. Initially the video is a bit burred, but it quickly clears.
Morris, D. (2011). The Human Animal: A Personal View of the Human Species. Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fRQSRed58XM
Here is a short “cheat sheet” on the meaning of common gestures and non-verbal behavior across cultures:
Diversity Tip Sheet: Cross-Cultural Communication: Translating Nonverbal Cues. (2008). Diversity Council. Retrieved from http://media.wix.com/ugd/585763_8ea8dab2b7574c1a85d491beaaa90a5f.pdf
Social Identity: Gender and Ethnicity
The last factor that we will examine in the context of cross-cultural communication is the area of social identity on styles of verbal and non-verbal communication. Social identity is a broad term that signifies any group or collective of which an individual feels a part. So, for example, your social identity might be female, baby boomer, African American, Buddhist, and/or Texan. When we communicate and interact with others, it often highlights the ways in which people from other identity groups are similar or different from our own. Indeed, it is common to assume greater similarity from a member of one of our own identity groups and greater difference between members of other groups. Although there are many bases of social identity, in this module, we will focus on two key identities—that of gender and ethnicity.
Research studies have found numerous differences between men and women in the realm of communication—even across cultures. Differences have been found in pronunciation (females have better pronunciation than males), intonation (women’s pitch is higher), vocabulary (women use more adjectives), diminutives (women use more), pronouns (women prefer first-person plural while men tend to use the first-person singular for self and second-person singular for others).
Other types of gender differences in communication involve greater use of modulation by women (“I might be wrong, but …”) whereas men are more direct. Women also tend to ask more questions as a way of engaging others in conversation, whereas men frequently view asking questions as a sign of ignorance or weakness. Men use imperative sentences more often when issuing orders, but women will modify the tone by using adverbs like “maybe,” “perhaps,” or “probably.”
Reference: Xia, X. (2013). Gender differences in using language. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(8), 1485–1489.
Deborah Tannen, a noted writer in the area of gender differences in communication, developed Genderlect Theory, which held that it is best to approach communication between genders as a cross-cultural activity because men and women have different approaches to communicating, including different dialects. While her theory gained widespread notoriety, it has not been widely adopted by the academic or scholarly community.
Furthermore, Tannen’s work has been criticized as being “male-centric,” recommending that women adopt more forceful and direct methods of communicating. More recent work on gender and communication suggests that in a globalized and service-oriented economy, advantage can be gained by a communication approach that is more empathetic and inclusive.
For a brief sketch of the differences in male and female communication styles, read:
Gillespie, D. (2013). Communication styles: Understanding gender differences. WorkHealthLife blog. Retrieved from http://blog.workhealthlife.com/2013/03/communication-styles-understanding-gender-differences/
For a more thorough, cross-cultural exposition of the social, historical, and cultural influences on gender and communication view the following video. Some segments are serious, some are funny; the segment beginning at 12:10 is a good example. The video is rather lengthy but worth the time, and it raises some controversial issues. Do you agree?
Archer, D. (2013). Gender and communication: male female differences in Language and non-verbal communication. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9iNSSOoNRe8
The United States is a country characterized by a great deal of ethnic diversity, and so it is particularly important to consider the extent to which ethnic identity influences communication. Ethnic identity is often subsumed under the term “social identity,” which can mean any social group with which one identifies. Just as with the above factors, identity issues in communication also concern differences in the way the world is conceived or experienced. These differences can lead to misunderstanding or unsuccessful communication when the viewpoint of the “other” is assumed to be the same as that of one’s own group.
Ethnic identities are “socially constructed.” That is, how we think about our ethnicity is influenced by the environment in which we grow up, are educated, and choose to live as adults. Who we interact with and our relationship to the dominant or majority ethnic group can shape the content and strength of our own ethnic identities.
The following animated PowerPoint presentation illustrates the complexity of ethnic identity. It is taken from Chapter 4 of Understanding Intercultural Communication by Stella Ting-Toomey and Leeva Chung. Take your time when viewing the slides. Because it is animated, the tendency is to click fast, but you will get more out of it if you slow down and take the time to understand each slide.
McKissick, C. (2013). Chapter 4: What are the keys to understanding cultural and ethnic identities? Retrieved from http://prezi.com/qxa61oj8zv_k/ch-4-what-are-the-keys-to-understanding-cultural-and-ethni/
PAPER 3
The SLP for this module involves taking a look at the stereotypes we have of our own culture—and that of another culture. Begin by assessing your stereotypes by filling out the following instrument: Assessing Your Stereotypes . Then, in your weekly journal, reflect on the following questions:
1. What was the score for your own group? For the other group?
2. What did the Assessing Your Stereotypes instrument reveal about the stereotypes you hold about your own and the other culture?
3. How can the concept of social identity be used to explain your scores?
4. What other insights have you gained about stereotypes from this questionnaire, the readings, and other aspects of the course so far that will be valuable to you in leading across different cultures?
The following reading on Social Identity Theory may help you address questions 3 and 4 above:
McLeod, S. (2008) Social Identity Theory. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-identity-theory.html
POWER POINT 4
You will engage in your cross-cultural experience. To document your experience, prepare a 5-minute video or a PowerPoint presentation with photos (at least 6 slides) describing the experience. This assignment should be strictly factual, as if you were preparing a news story on the event. You want to convey to the reader the look and feel of the contact experience or event. Concentrate on “who, what, when, where, and how.” The “why” question is what we will focus on in the Module 4 Case Assignment.
Assignment Expectations
· Your presentation should be professionally prepared, as if you were making a presentation to your boss.
· Presentations should be thoroughly edited and error-free.
· Any photos should be accompanied by descriptions naming the participants and circumstances.
· PowerPoint presentations may include voice-overs or other audio (e.g., music representative of the culture.)